The Theory of General Relativity

The Theory of General Relativity

"The Newtonian Disability"

"General Relativity"

Whenever a person in this universe says that word, the history of modern physics prevails itself. From the starting of the era where human mind wondered the aspects of this elegant universe, few intriguing questions came along. Newton discovered gravity and called it to be a force. for more than two centuries the equations given by him proved to be true. But when our minds started to imagine even higher some difficulties with the Newtonian mechanics came along. These questions were answered by Einstein himself. And when he did, Everything changed!

The problem with Newtonian Theory

 Newton stated gravity to be a force of attraction that acts at a distance. Through his understanding of gravitational force he successfully explained the motion of the moon around the earth and the motion of other planets around the solar system. He said that moon like any free falling body falls towards the earth, but it does not crashes on earth to create a planetary catastrophe because it also moves along the direction of its velocity in the space. Consequently, it moves 38 miles forward and 16 feet towards the earth. 

    

Newtonian Laws explained that light is not affected by the gravity of any mass M. He also stated that the change in Massive M is felt through out the cosmos instantly because of the denudation of that objects gravitational pull. But through SR we know that the speed of light (c) is the cosmic speed limit so no physical entity can exceed this limit. We can imagine this as we are supposed to cross a very fragile and old wood bridge that can diminish instantly. If we cross the bridge cautiously, the bridge will survive but if we cross the bridge at a robust speed the bridge tends to fall. And so does the spacetime. Through SR we know at speed of light the Mass of the object increases beyond our imagination and so does the energy it releases. This results in spacetime Distortion. 

    

      So, how can the change of loosing that mass M can be felt instantly. For example, light from the sun takes 8 minutes to reach us so, how can impact of loosing the sun can be felt instantly. This mystery was solved by Einstein through his theory of General Relativity. 

  

Introduction to theory in next post!

Anatomy of "Magic Wands"

Anatomy of "Magic Wands" 

Part-3

In this part of the series the topic of discussion will be one of the most interesting topics of  human anatomy- neurology. We are going to explore the nervous paradigm of hand and arm to get a deeper understanding that how those strong muscles that we talked about earlier move and co-ordinate. The significance of nervous paradigm of a working arm and hand is that it not only receipts the orders from brain but also transmits the first stimuli from the fore limbs. 

   

 The Musculocutaneous Nerve

 The main nerves of the fore limb are musculocutaneous nerves from the cervical and the thorax of the the spinal chord. It obliquely passes between the biceps brachii and brachialis. It is almost hidden and rarely gets damaged. It is the main supplier for the interior compartment of the hand muscles. It also branches along the interior compartment. The medical conditions for this nerve are also very rare because of the fact that it is covered by the exterior compartment. But some damage may occurs due to hypertrophy or stress of localized muscle tissue.  

The Radial Nerve 

Radial nerve supplies to the posterior portion of the upper limb controlling the 12  muscles of the posterior oestofascial compartment and the dorsal muscles. It is one of the major nerves of the upper limb and is subdivided into many branches. It passes through the inter muscular gaps near the triceps brachii and enters the grove of humerus to the fore arm. In the fore arm the nerve divides into

Muscle Supplied by Radial nerve

superficial branches of upper set  which is the sensory set and deep set  which is primarily the motor set. The deep branches of the radius nerve induces the supinator muscles and upper, the nail bead and some finger sections including middle, index fingers.

    

      The radial nerve being one of the most important nerves is also prone to serious medical conditions and injuries. Any kind damage in the radial nerve can lead to loss of sensation in the fore arm, weakness, loss of supinator control and eventually a complete motor failure while using radial induced muscle sets.

 

The Median Nerve

Median Nerve

The median nerve is one of the main nerves originating from the brachial plexus. It passes through the carpel tunnel into the hand. The median nerve has no voluntary function in the brachium. It basically induces the flexor groups of the fore arm including flexors like- 

• digitorum superfacialis,

•  flexor digitorum profundus

 It also supplies to the Superficial groups like-

• Pronator treres

• flexor carpi radialis

• Palmaris longus

The most common disorder with the median nerve is the carpal tunnel syndrome about which I have already discussed in my earlier posts.

The Ulnar Nerve

The ulnar nerve is called so because it runs really close to the ulna bone. The interesting thing about this nerve is that it passes between the medial epicondyle and the skin over that. Sometimes if we are struck over that spot a sensation of a electric shock passing through the fore arm is felt. This point is called funny point. 

 Muscles supplied

• Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

• Flerxor Digitorum Profundus

• Opponens digiti mini

• Dorsal and Palmar interossei.

     

Anatomy of "Magic Wands"

Anatomy of "Magic Wands" 

Part-2

In the second part of this series we are going to discuss about the muscle anatomy of the fore limbs.The muscle system in the arm and hand consists of both large and small muscles. We can also find exceptional amount of tendon tissue all over the fore limb.

     

        The interesting thing about arm is that the muscle groups are divided into two fascial layers namely lateral and medial inter muscular septa. These layers divide the muscle groups into two different compartments. The important thing about limbs is that they are responsible for flexion and extension of themselves that helps us to carry out almost every movement that takes place by limbs.

The basic naming involving muscle is carries out on the character of the muscle and is place. For example the brachioradialis is the big strapped muscle that we observe to pop out while flexion near the elbow joint. This muscle is named so because it is found at the brachial side of the radius bone.

 

The list of Muscle Involved in following movements-

Flexion of fore arm-                                                             

• Brachialis
• Biceps Brachii
•  Brachioradialis

The Supination of forearm-

• Bicep Brachii

The extension-

• Triceps brachii

The extensor muscles-

• Triceps Brachii (Posterior)
• Carpi Ulnaris (Posterior)
•  Extensor Digitorum (Posterior)

Flexion Muscles

• Flexor Carpi Radialis
• Flexor Digitorum Suerficialis

Carpal tunnel

The flexor and extensor muscles pass through a narrow tunnel at our wrists called carpal tunnel. The tendons of these muscles pass through the tunnel to connect with the phalanges and other bones in the hand. Some time due to incorrect posture or over work a strong inflammation occurs in the carpel tunnel due to extensive stress on median nerve by localized swelling of tendons or muscles.This causes numbness and inability to do griping work. This is called Carpel tunnel syndrome. 

Anatomy of "Magic Wands"

Anatomy of "Magic Wands" 

Part-1

When I say that all humans have their own magical wands, that will not be a lie. For they are our powerful and versatile arms that I am talking about. From the very first civilization till now everything that man has done is shaped by our hands. The history of human kind started when we lifted those two arms of the land high in he air.

  When we discuss about the anatomy of hand and arm we witness some finest pieces of art of nature. Complex muscle groups and bones work in synchronization to even lift a cup of coffee from the table or write the simplest of words.While having a discourse about hand we will divide our field of discussion in four parts-

• The bone system or osteology
• The muscle system
• The nervous system in fore limbs
• The circulatory system

Osteology

The osteology of hand and arm is somewhat easy to understand, one of the 3 longest bones, humerus and starts from the from our shoulder joint and ends at the meeting joint with ulna and radius at the elbow region. The simple hinge joint at the elbow proposes simple oscillatory motion.

The humerus is connected to shoulder grids with the help of rotatory joint formed by humerus head and scapula.The total arm structure is supported by clavicle or the "collar bone" 

       The humerus ends at elbow joint is formed by lateral epicondyle, humeral capitulum, radial and ulnar heads including Fossas and flexor digitoram sublimis. The radius and ulna are other two long bones present in the arm and have capacity to bear heavy weights and tension.The ulna and radius meets with the hand at wrist joint. The hand bones comprises of the 8 "Carpal" bones, Four of these are organized into a proximal row which articulates with the bones of forearms and other four in a distill row that articulates with the five metacarpals. These metacarpals thus join with the phalanges making metacarpophalangeal joint. The phalanges which are 14 in number make up the fingers of the hand.  

Relativity

Relativity

Part-2  

Generation of New Frame of reference

     A reference Frame can be defined as an observational perspective that is used to study any event or happening in physical world, every theory that relates with motion or kinematics and even electromagnetism may compulsorily require the reference frame. And so does theory of special relativity. The difference which one can comprehend in this particular theory is the removal of Galilean reference frames or the inertial reference frames that are used in Newtonian physics by non-inertial reference frames. 

Aether

      This was sort of a problem,the problem arose when physicist studied the principle of relativity which states that their is nothing as preferred inertial frame but we know that the concept of 'Aether'

was developed after the discovery of electromagnetic waves in the early late 19th century. This concept stated that the space is filled with an unknown material that is called aether which acts as medium for propagation of electromagnetic waves, but the properties of the aether were considered absurd and the concept fell due to results of Michelson- Morley experiment.

       With the decline, the concept of absolute reference frame that supported every thing that scientist had discovered about electromagnetic propagation also fell. At last Einstein was the one that provided the true solution to this problem by dissolving the concept of absoluteness and aether by relativity.

These are the new frames where the non-primed frame is at rest and the
 primed one is moving relative to that of the rest one

  Einstein used non-inertial relative reference frames and solved the problem, the concepts of Lorentz transformation were also used to connect the two reference frames relative to each other. Acceleration, velocity distance and time were hence proved relative in the two relative frames of reference.  

                 

            

Journey of Food

                                                                  Journey of Food

We usually wonder about our eating tasting and other habits related to food consumption. But we do not know that the food itself has to travel a long journey of 10 to 12 hours through our amazing digestive system. So I will throw some light on the topic.

      The Journey of food starts with the opening of the elementary canal or the Mouth and the food pipe or esophagus and ends when we go to the toilet. Through the elementary canal food is attacked, churned and squeezed by various digestive organs and Juices. So, let us start from the first step

But before that, we should know that how do we get hungry? Interesting question right! Well, the answer to this very question is brain. The specific part of brain called hypothalamus makes us feel hungry and thirsty. And the other part of the brain namely medulla controls the automatic gut movements which are done by the involuntary muscles or unstrapped muscles. Now proceeding with the process-

Eating and chewing

    The first step of food’s journey is to be crushed and meshed by our teeth and then simultaneously get mixed with the salivary enzyme such as amylase. The salivary enzymes break down starchy substances of the food into simpler substance. The saliva flows down more during an eating session rather than a normal time period and is produced by submandibular gland and sublingual gland in the mouth.

Swallowing and the epiglottis

     When we swallow the food after chewing, it enters the food pipe or esophagus which is a tube surrounded by muscles that pushes down the food. But before entering the food pipe there are chances that it may enter the wind pipe, so to prevent this there is a flap like structure namely epiglottis that closes the wind pipe before the food enters it.

Acid Attack!

The food is sent by the esophagus to the stomach. Stomach is a muscular bag which squashes and mashes the food which it receives.

      But the main digestion process is carried out with in the stomach. In the inner part of the stomach wall there are many folds and turns called rugae which allow the stomach to stretch. The inner most layer of the stomach wall is called the submucosa and above that the mucosa. These layers contain mucous producing cells the helps to prevent the hydrochloric acid produced by the hydrolytic cells to harm the wall. The hydrochloric acid help in digesting the hard component of food and killing bad microorganism. The hydrolytic cells are lined within the gastric pits in the mucosa with the slim producing cells. The last part of the stomach or the entrance of the small intestine is called Duodenum.

I will post about the next part of the journey in the next post after all it is boring to read too much in a short while.

But I think this video might be help full in that matter.    

Important Science videos

Important  Science videos

Electricity 

Albert  Einstein 

Black Holes

Evolution

Universe- An unsolved mystery

Future

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics

The study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy is called thermodynamics. The basic principles and laws include absolute zero and the laws of thermodynamics.

First law of thermodynamics

“When heat flows to or from a system, the system gains or losses an amount of energy equal to the amount of heat transferred”

Heat transfers from one substance to the other substance because of particle collisions and when it does the giver of the heat and the receiver of the heat both face a change in the heat energy they were initially were before the transfer. This law is pretty obvious and its examples can be seen throughout the daily life which includes a heating pan or a car engine etc.

If we add heat to a isolated system the system or the object then it may do some work and increase its internal energy and this can be expressed as

Heat supplied to a system is equal to the sum of the external work done and the increase in the internal energy.

Second law of thermodynamics

“Heat always flows from hot object to cold object by itself”

This law clearly as we can observe states that heat energy always from the hot object to cold object. This law in other terms expresses the natural tendency of motion of heat energy. Due to the movement the ice melts and the heat or internal combustion engines work.

I fell that it is must mentioning the example of heat engine so I am doing so

The condition of absolute zero and absolute hot states that the object is at the state of zero kinetic energy or heat or maximum kinetic energy or heat at the molecular level.

The case of zero molecular movement of  the lowest temperature an object can be is the absolute zero and the highest is absolute hot which is equal to the planks temperature

Thermal Physics

Thermal Physics

Hello it’s been a long time since I have posted something. But now I am going to post about thermal physics and its theoretical introduction. Now starting with my work I would like to discuss some basic terminologies of Thermal physics.

Heat

Heat is the form of energy that flows from an object of higher temperature to a lower temperature. The matter around us posses energy in its molecules in form of molecular kinetic or potential energy, once this energy follows a path of temperature difference from one body to another then it is termed as heat. The temperature can be defined as a measurement scale in which the hotness or coldness of a object of mass is measured. 

The basic measurement scales in temperature are Kelvin the system international and the centigrade scale. The American scale of temperature is Fahrenheit scale. Heat can only be generated in a matter if the moving energies of the molecules or the rotational kinetic energy of the molecules changes its form. kinetic  energy and the other energy or the potential energy is also possessed by the particles and these energies of motion and rest of the particles in sum is known as the internal energy of the object.

Heating and cooling

The phenomenon of heating occurs when the object gains heat energy and the internal energy of the particles increase leading to rise in temperature. The cooling occurs if the object looses the heat energy and the internal energy of the object decreases leading to drop in temperature.

Thermal expansion

Railway  track  having  drastic  effect  of thermal  expansion 

The flow of heat energy in a substance leads to the increase in the net temperature of the object and that occurs because the molecules of the matter have absorbed a large amount of heat energy, this leads in the increase of kinetic energy. As the kinetic energy increases or the particles move faster they become freer and the phenomena of thermal expansion or the expansion of the bulk of the matter takes place  . The vice versa of the process occurs if the object is cooled, the movement of particles slow down and hey become more stiffer and contract. This phenomenon is known as thermal contraction. 

Black Holes: The Wonder of Cosmos

Black Holes: The Wonder of Cosmos

Hello, its been a while since I have written a blog post. This time I am going to give light on black holes that are so mysterious topics in advanced physics.

  Black holes can be defined as a body with immense gravity and where escape velocity is speed of light. Black holes are formed when stars collapses and creates a super nova exerting immense amount of radioactive energy from their core. They got their name black as light also bend and is absorbed by the hole resulting in zero visibility.

Singularity and Quantum Space

Black has a center point where all of its mass is stacked and compressed to a size smaller than atom. Black holes can only be formed when gravity of the star’s  core greater enough to crush everything, it crushes the hole stars mass and compresses it to the size of singularity. It is believed that singularity may be small to the size of Plank’s length. The tremendous energy of star is enough to squeeze the wavelength of every particle to almost nothing.

Event Horizon

Every black hole is surrounded by the event horizon. It is a horizon surrounding the black hole where the possibility of even small happenings becomes extinct. No one can see what might happen inside the horizon. The escape velocity also increases as we go deeper towards the horizon. At Event horizon the escape velocity turns 1c that is speed of light. So we can say that singularity is the physical grave where nothing physical can come out.

Tidal forces

When any object fall towards the black hole it stretches or compresses because of the tidal gravity exerted by the hole. Well, of course no one can enter the hole but still if we assume that a rocket is launched from the earth to nearest black whole. This space rocket is super advanced that it can enter the black hole, when it enters the horizon it starts moving faster towards the holes center, it stretches and squeezes. As far as the travellers are concerned they will may be get crumbled or Spaghettified (That’s what this stretching and squeezing is called).

Time’s Death

Inside the black hole at it’s horizon the travellers inside our rocket feel as that the time starts slowing, they will move as faster as they can towards the hole but as soon as they reach the hole they will trapped as the time is stopping because of black holes immense gravity.