Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics

The study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy is called thermodynamics. The basic principles and laws include absolute zero and the laws of thermodynamics.

First law of thermodynamics

“When heat flows to or from a system, the system gains or losses an amount of energy equal to the amount of heat transferred”

Heat transfers from one substance to the other substance because of particle collisions and when it does the giver of the heat and the receiver of the heat both face a change in the heat energy they were initially were before the transfer. This law is pretty obvious and its examples can be seen throughout the daily life which includes a heating pan or a car engine etc.

If we add heat to a isolated system the system or the object then it may do some work and increase its internal energy and this can be expressed as

Heat supplied to a system is equal to the sum of the external work done and the increase in the internal energy.

Second law of thermodynamics

“Heat always flows from hot object to cold object by itself”

This law clearly as we can observe states that heat energy always from the hot object to cold object. This law in other terms expresses the natural tendency of motion of heat energy. Due to the movement the ice melts and the heat or internal combustion engines work.

I fell that it is must mentioning the example of heat engine so I am doing so

The condition of absolute zero and absolute hot states that the object is at the state of zero kinetic energy or heat or maximum kinetic energy or heat at the molecular level.

The case of zero molecular movement of  the lowest temperature an object can be is the absolute zero and the highest is absolute hot which is equal to the planks temperature

Thermal Physics

Thermal Physics

Hello it’s been a long time since I have posted something. But now I am going to post about thermal physics and its theoretical introduction. Now starting with my work I would like to discuss some basic terminologies of Thermal physics.

Heat

Heat is the form of energy that flows from an object of higher temperature to a lower temperature. The matter around us posses energy in its molecules in form of molecular kinetic or potential energy, once this energy follows a path of temperature difference from one body to another then it is termed as heat. The temperature can be defined as a measurement scale in which the hotness or coldness of a object of mass is measured. 

The basic measurement scales in temperature are Kelvin the system international and the centigrade scale. The American scale of temperature is Fahrenheit scale. Heat can only be generated in a matter if the moving energies of the molecules or the rotational kinetic energy of the molecules changes its form. kinetic  energy and the other energy or the potential energy is also possessed by the particles and these energies of motion and rest of the particles in sum is known as the internal energy of the object.

Heating and cooling

The phenomenon of heating occurs when the object gains heat energy and the internal energy of the particles increase leading to rise in temperature. The cooling occurs if the object looses the heat energy and the internal energy of the object decreases leading to drop in temperature.

Thermal expansion

Railway  track  having  drastic  effect  of thermal  expansion 

The flow of heat energy in a substance leads to the increase in the net temperature of the object and that occurs because the molecules of the matter have absorbed a large amount of heat energy, this leads in the increase of kinetic energy. As the kinetic energy increases or the particles move faster they become freer and the phenomena of thermal expansion or the expansion of the bulk of the matter takes place  . The vice versa of the process occurs if the object is cooled, the movement of particles slow down and hey become more stiffer and contract. This phenomenon is known as thermal contraction. 

Black Holes: The Wonder of Cosmos

Black Holes: The Wonder of Cosmos

Hello, its been a while since I have written a blog post. This time I am going to give light on black holes that are so mysterious topics in advanced physics.

  Black holes can be defined as a body with immense gravity and where escape velocity is speed of light. Black holes are formed when stars collapses and creates a super nova exerting immense amount of radioactive energy from their core. They got their name black as light also bend and is absorbed by the hole resulting in zero visibility.

Singularity and Quantum Space

Black has a center point where all of its mass is stacked and compressed to a size smaller than atom. Black holes can only be formed when gravity of the star’s  core greater enough to crush everything, it crushes the hole stars mass and compresses it to the size of singularity. It is believed that singularity may be small to the size of Plank’s length. The tremendous energy of star is enough to squeeze the wavelength of every particle to almost nothing.

Event Horizon

Every black hole is surrounded by the event horizon. It is a horizon surrounding the black hole where the possibility of even small happenings becomes extinct. No one can see what might happen inside the horizon. The escape velocity also increases as we go deeper towards the horizon. At Event horizon the escape velocity turns 1c that is speed of light. So we can say that singularity is the physical grave where nothing physical can come out.

Tidal forces

When any object fall towards the black hole it stretches or compresses because of the tidal gravity exerted by the hole. Well, of course no one can enter the hole but still if we assume that a rocket is launched from the earth to nearest black whole. This space rocket is super advanced that it can enter the black hole, when it enters the horizon it starts moving faster towards the holes center, it stretches and squeezes. As far as the travellers are concerned they will may be get crumbled or Spaghettified (That’s what this stretching and squeezing is called).

Time’s Death

Inside the black hole at it’s horizon the travellers inside our rocket feel as that the time starts slowing, they will move as faster as they can towards the hole but as soon as they reach the hole they will trapped as the time is stopping because of black holes immense gravity.

Light " A brief Description"

Light

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation composed of wave packets of energy. Light is the only thing that can make anything visible. Light is composed of photons a category of quantum particles that have no mass. Many theories have been over time in respected to light. The visible light has a spectrum that is called as electromagnetic spectrum. Every visible wave should have a low frequency of radiation. The visible form of light is having a wavelength in the range of 400 nanometers (nm), or 400×10⁻⁹ m, to 700 nanometres – between the infrared, with longer wavelengths and the ultraviolet, with shorter wavelengths.

     The basic properties of visible light are-

·       Intensity- the intensity of light is defined as the density and power of energy.

·       Frequency- The frequency of light is the frequency of the propagated wave.

·       Propagation in a direction- The direction of way of light.

Optics

The study of light and its applications is known as optics.

Refraction

An example of refraction of light. The straw appears bent, because of refraction of light as it enters liquid from air.

Refraction is the bending of light rays when passing through a surface between one transparent material and another. It is described by Snell's Law:

where is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the first medium, is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the second medium, and n₁ and n₂ are the indices of refraction, n = 1 in a vacuum and n > 1 in a transparent substance.

When a beam of light crosses the boundary between a vacuum and another medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the frequency remains constant. If the beam of light is not orthogonal (or rather normal) to the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the beam. This change of direction is known as refraction.

The refractive quality of lenses is frequently used to manipulate light in order to change the apparent size of images. Magnifying glasses, spectacles, contact lenses, microscopes and refracting telescopes are all examples of this manipulation.

Nomenclature

Strong spectral lines in the visible part of the spectrum often have a unique Fraunhofer line designation, such as K for a line at 393.366 nm emerging from singly ionized Ca⁺, though some of the Fraunhofer "lines" are blends of multiple lines from several different species. In other cases the lines are designated according to the level of ionization adding a Roman numeral to the designation of the chemical element, so that Ca⁺ also has the designation Ca II. Neutral atoms are denoted with the roman number I, singly ionized atoms with II, and so on, so that for example Fe IX (IX, roman 9) represents eight times ionized iron. More detailed designations usually include the line wavelength and may include a multiplet number (for atomic lines) or band designation (for molecular lines). Many spectral lines of atomic hydrogen also have designations within their respective series, such as the Lyman series or Balmer series.

Quantum theory

In 1900 Max Planck, attempting to explain black body radiation suggested that although light was a wave, these waves could gain or lose energy only in finite amounts related to their frequency. Planck called these "lumps" of light energy "quanta" (from a Latin word for "how much"). In 1905, Albert Einstein used the idea of light quanta to explain the photoelectric effect, and suggested that these light quanta had a "real" existence. In 1923 Arthur Holly Compton showed that the wavelength shift seen when low intensity X-rays scattered from electrons (so called Compton scattering) could be explained by a particle-theory of X-rays, but not a wave theory. In 1926 Gilbert N. Lewis named these liqht quanta particles photons.

Eventually the modern theory of quantum mechanics came to picture light as (in some sense) both a particle and a wave, and (in another sense), as a phenomenon which is neither a particle nor a wave (which actually are macroscopic phenomena, such as baseballs or ocean waves). Instead, modern physics sees light as something that can be described sometimes with mathematics appropriate to one type of macroscopic metaphor (particles), and sometimes another macroscopic metaphor (water waves), but is actually something that cannot be fully imagined. As in the case for radio waves and the X-rays involved in Compton scattering, physicists have noted that electromagnetic radiation tends to behave more like a classical wave at lower frequencies, but more like a classical particle at higher frequencies, but never completely loses all qualities of one or the other. Visible light, which occupies a middle ground in frequency, can easily be shown in experiments to be describable using either a wave or particle model, or sometimes both.

The Rutherford–Bohr model of the hydrogen atom (Z = 1) or a hydrogen-like ion (Z > 1), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jump between orbits is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (hν).^[1] The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as n², where n is the principal quantum number. The 3 → 2 transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen (Z = 1) it results in a photon of wavelength 656 nm (red light).

Taken reference from internet

Genetics Video Documentary

Genetics Video Documentary

 

18Things 

What Monk said!

Chromosomal genetics

Great Discoveries

Fiction to Future Truth

History of Earth

Creation of the Earth

Earth, the most mesmerizing planet in the whole universe. A planet that is the only place where life developed and was created. To discover how our earth was made we need to go into the time when our Sun was born around 5 billion years ago there was only one star in the vast part of solar system and big cosmic rocs circling it and the gravity brought them to make at least 100 planets. Our earth was one of them a burning ball of hot lava, no air and temperature was around 1200 degrees. When a small planet called Thea crashed on the earth and its gravity pulled and projected a huge part of the earth which started circling around the earth and turned out to be the new born moon it was nearer that it is today. And here on earth a whole bunch of meteors attacked which were carrying water in them and that water cooled the earth surface gathering on about millions of years forming the first oceans, but still no sign of life there was no atmosphere and temperature was very high. After some year’s atmosphere was born full of toxic gases and water vapors creating mega storms. And down in the sea beds water of seas was seeping down in crust getting hot and mixing with important mixtures, getting out again into the sea as a soup of life where somehow first primitive bacteria’s were born reproducing and growing. After some time first astromatelitte were born…….. watch this video you will find it more interesting believe me     

Quantum Mechanics And Einstein

Quantum Mechanics And Einstein 

Relativity and both quantum mechanics are great achievements of human brain. But they both actually oppose each other in some cases. For example let us see the relation of space time where they clash in the space time loop as I mentioned in my theory of geveon. The idea of quantum mechanics also under lines the theory of chemistry and biology, the quantum mechanical model of atom is a great success in the ideas of the atomic theories. That directly relates to biology thats understood.

Their were many great scientists in the history of physics but the greatest of them was Albert Einstein he contributed many things in the vasts fields of quantum, mechanics

• Discovering that light is made of particles called photons
• Introducing the principle of particle wave ductility 
• Developing with Bose, a quantum theory of identical particles.
• Establishing the theoretical basis of development of laser.

"If Quantum mechanics has not profoundly shocked you then you have

 not completely understood it"    -Neils Bohr 

"I think that I can safely say that

 no one understands Quantum Mechanics"   -Richard Feynman

Quantization is a very important aspect of quantum mechanics it means nothing but Taking something to its very smallest limit. 

Ultraviolet catastrophe

Their was a great debate between Bohr and Einstein and accordingly they stated that              

   

Brain

Brain

 

The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain, even if diffuse neural tissue is present. It is located in the head, usually close to the primary sensory organs for such senses as vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a typical human, the cerebral cortex (the largest part) is estimated to contain 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.

Anatomy

The shape and size of the brains of different species vary greatly, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species;others distinguish "advanced" brains from more primitive ones, or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.

The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter, with a lighter color. Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another.

Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components, along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood:

• The medulla, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and motor functions.
• The pons lies in the brainstem directly above the medulla. Among other things, it contains nuclei that control sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder function, equilibrium, eye movement, facial expressions, and posture.
• The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and neurochemistry. The hypothalamus regulates sleep and wake cycles, eating and drinking, hormone release, and many other critical biological functions.
• The thalamus is another collection of nuclei with diverse functions. Some are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres. Others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (zona incerta) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of "consummatory" behaviors, including eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation.
• The cerebellum modulates the outputs of other brain systems to make them precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in, but learned by trial and error. Learning how to ride a bicycle is an example of a type of neural plasticity that may take place largely within the cerebellum.
• The optic tectum allows actions to be directed toward points in space, most commonly in response to visual input. In mammals it is usually referred to as the superior colliculus, and its best-studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements and other object-directed actions. It receives strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls and input from the thermosensitive pit organs in snakes. In some fishes, such as lampreys, this region is the largest part of the brain.The superior colliculus is part of the midbrain.
• The pallium is a layer of gray matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain. In reptiles and mammals, it is called the cerebral cortex. Multiple functions involve the pallium, including olfaction and spatial memory. In mammals, where it becomes so large as to dominate the brain, it takes over functions from many other brain areas. In many mammals, the cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci. The folds increase the surface area of the cortex and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the amount of information that can be processed.
• The hippocampus, strictly speaking, is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals.
• The basal ganglia are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain. The primary function of the basal ganglia appears to be action selection: they send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate motor behaviors, and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Reward and punishment exert their most important neural effects by altering connections within the basal ganglia.
• The olfactory bulb is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but is greatly reduced in primates.

Mammals

The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is in terms of size. On average, a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size, and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size.

Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure.The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple three-layered structure called the pallium. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex six-layered structure called neocortex or isocortex. Several areas at the edge of the neocortex, including the hippocampus and amygdala, are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates.

The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas. The superior colliculus, which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates, shrinks to a small size in mammals, and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex.The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion (the neocerebellum) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex, which has no counterpart in other vertebrates.